American International Journal of Social Science Vol. 8, No. 4, December 2019 doi:10.30845/aijss.v8n4p11 Native Americans’ Discourse in the Trail of Tears Poems Dr. Adil M. Jamil Associate Professor of English Faculty of Arts and Sciences Amman Arab University Amman, Jordan Abstract This study examines the Native Americans’ discourse as revealed in some poems under the title Trail of Tears written by Native American poets beside Non-Native Americans akin to the cause of indigenous people. A careful examination of such verses showcases that the discourse is always fashioned in a way to yield four distinctive themes: a. resentment at the atrocities of the settlers and their devastating impact on the Natives; b. the tragic events as an emblem of ongoing injustice and an inspiration for all American Natives to remember, learn, and protect their identity and resist aggression; c. a genuine faith in the immortality of the soul and the spirituality of the natural world where divine spirits roam and supply moral support and empowerment to oppressed souls; d. perseverance to protect identity and to keep struggling against aggression till justice is served. Whether the poem is written by an anthologized adept poet, or a novice writer, these components are brilliantly articulated to serve the overall purpose of the Natives’ cause, i.e. to win the support of the world body of justice and to muster the guts of fellow Natives to continue resisting the aggression. Keywords: Native Americans, Trail of Tears, Removal Act, Poetry of Indigenous People, Spirituality of Nature. Introduction 1. Limitations of Study This study is limited to the examination of the Natives‟ discourse as revealed in nine representative poems exclusively dedicated to the Trail of Tears, and carrying partly or entirely the same title, and written by Native poets and sympathizers. The study moves chronologically from the earliest published poems to the most recent ones, in an attempt to highlight the common grounds, the ingredients, and above all the growing sense of empowerment and dedication the poets display in the verses. 2. The Trail of Tears in Brief All concerned historians consider The Trail of Tears, the relocation of Indians in 1838, as the beginning of Native Americans‟ catastrophe and holocaust (Stannard, 1993; Thornton, 1987). Decades before and even after the American Independence, the Native tribes lived peacefully in the eastern states, integrating and trading with the newly developing white communities, and enjoyed self-rule governments, meanwhile they helped the US troops whenever called upon. The Cherokee fought to the side of Andrew Jackson, when he was a commander of Tennessee Militias. They helped Jackson to win the Battle of Horseshoe Bend against the Creek Indians and forced them to surrender vast lands in Alabama and Georgia in 1813. Also with the help of the Cherokee, and Choctaw and some Creeks, Jackson put down the rebellion of the Seminole Red Sticks, the allies of Britain and Spain. But things changed drastically during the Age of Common Man especially after the election of Andrew Jackson as president of the United States (Burnett, 1890, Wallace 2011, Morris, 2007). Despite the old comradeship and cahoots, after his election in 1829, Jackson strove desperately to convince the Congress to approve his notorious bill, the Indian Removal Act in 1830. Afterwards, he and followers openly led a systematic campaign to demonize the used-to-be civilized tribes and allies, accusing them of being heathens, anti- Christ, less intelligent, less ambitious, less principled, and worse unfit to have any immediate contact with white communities, till they cast off their savage habits and become Christians (Stannard, 1993; Thornton, 1987). In 1838, the US government, led by President Martin Van Buren, the successor of Jackson put in effect Jackson‟s bill. It began forcibly relocating East Coast Indian five tribes, the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and Chickasaw to a new land across the Mississippi River in Oklahoma State. All the Natives were ordered to evacuate, except for very few who either retreated to the swamps, caves, and mountains or readily surrendered ancestral heritage and accepted humiliating assimilation (Baird, 1973, Grenke, 2005). 70 ISSN 2325-4149 (Print), 2325-4165 (Online) ©Center for Promoting Ideas, USA www.aijssnet.com The tragic march of about 17,000 Cherokees along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves, began on October 18,1838, and only half of the total evacuees reached the final destination on March 26, 1839. During the one 1000-mile journey, the Natives endured the unendurable, cold weather, starvation, humiliation and diseases. Deliberately the military escorts routed the trail to pass through areas of known cholera epidemics (Stannard, 1993). As epidemic diseases spread among them, the escorts did not allow them to go into any town or village along the way, so the white settlers would not catch the infection. During the six-month journey several thousands died. The death toll of Indians has been variously estimated (Mooney, 2017). Some estimate 4,000 deaths (Carter, 1976). Others estimate 8000 deaths, about half of the total population (Stannard, 1993). Surprisingly, the unprecedented plight and loss of innocent souls went unnoticed by the federal government (Adams, Mattie Lorraine, 1973, Mooney, James 2005, Hill, Sarah H. 2011). However, the gruesome events accompanied the Indians‟ march were later documented by historians and witnesses. For instance, John G. Burnett, a member of the mounted infantry who took part in the removal of Cherokees from homeland, describes the march as the execution of the most brutal order in the History of America. In the beginning, men working in the fields, were arrested and driven to the stockade [concentration camp] … women dragged from their homes by soldiers… children separated from parents, the old and infirm prodded with bayonets to hasten them to the stockades, leaving dead children behind without burial; and many mothers fell dead because of heart failure, shock, or fatigue (Burnett, 1890). Another volunteer from Georgia, participated in the removal, recounts: I fought through the War Between the States and have seen many men shot, but the Cherokee Removal was the cruellest work I ever knew (Mooney, 124). Martin Davis, a Commissary Agent, describes as follows the hardship the Natives endured while waiting for the ferry to cross the frozen river: This is the coldest weather in Illinois I ever experienced anywhere. The streams are all frozen over… It snows here every two or three days at the farthest… We have only travelled 65 miles (105 km) on the last month, including the time spent at this place, which has been about three weeks (Adams,1972). In additions, many testimonies make known what has been concealed, the cruelty of the evacuators and the miseries of the evacuees (Brown, 2007). The Trail of Tears is often taken by observers as the beginning of the Native Americans‟ holocaust, and unfortunately followed by a series of bloody events, for a reason not hard to discern. It is to wipe out the Natives from their entire homeland, yet the Indians survived the onslaught of destruction and rose out of the ashes, embracing their own identity, resisting the aggression, and continue calling for justice. To the Natives, the Trail of Tears, has ever remained an emblem of injustice and a living reminder of the most brutal campaign in the History of America, as constantly revealed in the writings of the Natives and sympathizers. 3. The Natives’ Arts of Resistance After a series of extermination and destruction, most Indians came to a bitter conclusion that physical resistance against the US invincible force is implausible, thus nothing left for them to resist the aggression and make their voice heard but linguistic resistance, i.e. the power of language (Rader, 2002. 148). Recognizing realities, the Native Americans see language as a viable weapon to protect cultural identity and sovereignty (Rader,148). Language to them is the only available medium to express through contestation, continuation, and resistance. Through language they reserve their identity, traditions, and the story of their miraculous survival of the long series of systematic genocides and massacres. The Native artists embrace the idea that the power of language lying in arts can be used to heal, regenerate, to recreate, and to correct misinformation and stereotypes long advocated by outsiders (Archuleta, 2006, 91). In their writings, the Natives contest that attempts of forced assimilation or continued threats of violence have not achieved the goal in mind of oppressor. More than five hundred years of trying to erase, ignore, or to keep the oppressed nations silent, have remained futile. The Natives have ever stood defiant despite the lapse of years. Furthermore, all forms of arts are invested to help distressed souls become empowered rather than victimized by destruction, as Joy Harjo puts it (Harjo, Joy. 1997. 21). Through language, Native writers bring to life too painful, too stark and sharp stories, with which they may awaken the ignorant of truthful history, as Linda Noel proclaims (qtd. in Harjo 1997. 234). Powerful language is used to lift off the veil of the hidden truth, and make it readily perceived so as to create a body of collective knowledge that may recognize the truth and possibly change. 4. War Poems of Native Americans Over the past five centuries, war has become a fundamental part of the Natives‟ life, and thus it is always present in the arts they produce. In their war poems, the Natives delineate with vivid images the long tales of starvation, diseases, loss of innocent people, and resistance as constant realities of the life of the Natives, who have been still living in a war zone (Hernandez-Avila IX). They often resort to the mode of documented narrative genre, and rely mainly on the all- too-clearly-written texts of history (Gould,1995), and constantly make references to tragic events, such as the infamous Trail of Tears, Sand Creek Massacre, Wounded Knee Massacre, beside other tragic events suffered by the Natives.
Recommended publications PETITION Ror,RECOGNITION of the FLORIDA TRIBE Or EASTERN CREEK INDIANS'l PETITION rOR,RECOGNITION OF THE FLORIDA TRIBE or EASTERN CREEK INDIANS TH;: FLORIDA TRIBE OF EASTERN CREEK INDIANS and the Administra tive Council, THE NORTHWEST FLORIDA CREEK INDIAN COUNCIL brings this, thew petition to the DEPARTMENT Or THE INTERIOR OF THE FEDERAL GOVERN- MENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, and prays this honorable nation will honor their petition, which is a petition for recognition by this great nation that THE FLORIDA TRIBE OF EASTERN CREEK INDIANS is an Indian Tribe. In support of this plea for recognition THE FLORIDA TRIBE OF EASTERN CREEK INDIANS herewith avers: (1) THE FLORIDA TRIBE OF EASTERN CREEK INDIANS nor any of its members, is the subject of Congressional legislation which has expressly terminated or forbidden the Federal relationship sought. (2) The membership of THE FLORIDA TRIBE OF EASTERN CREEK INDIANS is composed principally of persons who are not members of any other North American Indian tribe. (3) A list of all known current members of THE FLORIDA TRIBE OF EASTERN CREEK INDIANS, based on the tribes acceptance of these members and the tribes own defined membership criteria is attached to this petition and made a part of it. SEE APPENDIX----- A The membership consists of individuals who are descendants of the CREEK NATION which existed in aboriginal times, using and occuping this present georgraphical location alone, and in conjunction with other people since that time. - l - MNF-PFD-V001-D0002 Page 1of4 (4) Attached herewith and made a part of this petition is the present governing Constitution of THE FLORIDA TRIBE OF EASTERN CREEKS INDIANS.
Choctaw and Creek RemovalsChapter 6 Choctaw and Creek Removals The idea of indian removal as a government obligation first reared its head in 1802 when officials of the state of Georgia made an agreement with federal government officials. In the Georgia Compact, the state of Georgia gave up its claims to territorial lands west of that state in exchange for $1,250,000 and a promise that the federal government would abolish Indian title to Georgia lands as soon as possible. How seriously the government took its obligation to Georgia at the time of the agreement is unknown. The following year, however, the Louisiana Purchase was made, and almost immedi- ately, the trans-Mississippi area was seen by some as the answer to “The Indian Problem.” Not everyone agreed. Some congress- men argued that removal to the West was impractical because of land-hungry whites who could not be restrained from crossing the mighty river to obtain land. Although their conclusion was correct, it was probably made more in opposition to President Jefferson than from any real con- cern about the Indians or about practicality. Although some offers were made by government officials to officials of various tribes, little Pushmataha, Choctaw was done about removing the southeastern tribes before the War of 1812. warrior During that war several Indian tribes supported the British. After the war ended, many whites demanded that tribal lands be confiscated by Removals 67 the government as punishment for Indians’ treasonous activities. Many Americans included all tribes in their confiscationdemands , evidently feeling that all Indians were guilty, despite the fact that many tribes did not participate in the war.
Challenge Bowl 2020Sponsored by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation Challenge Bowl 2020 High School Study Guide Sponsored by the Challenge Bowl 2020 Muscogee (Creek) Nation Table of Contents A Struggle To Survive . 3-4 1. Muscogee History . 5-30 2. Muscogee Forced Removal . 31-50 3. Muscogee Customs & Traditions . 51-62 4. Branches of Government . 63-76 5. Muscogee Royalty . 77-79 6. Muscogee (Creek) Nation Seal . 80-81 7. Belvin Hill Scholarship . 82-83 8. Wilbur Chebon Gouge Honors Team . 84-85 9. Chronicles of Oklahoma . 86-97 10. Legends & Stories .
THE WAR of 1812 in CLAY COUNTY, ALABAMA by Don C. EastTHE WAR OF 1812 IN CLAY COUNTY, ALABAMA By Don C. East BACKGROUND The War of 1812 is often referred to as the “Forgotten War.” This conflict was overshadowed by the grand scale of the American Revolutionary War before it and the American Civil War afterwards. We Americans fought two wars with England: the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812. Put simply, the first of these was a war for our political freedom, while the second was a war for our economic freedom. However, it was a bit more complex than that. In 1812, the British were still smarting from the defeat of their forces and the loss of their colonies to the upstart Americans. Beyond that, the major causes of the war of 1812 were the illegal impressments of our ships’ crewmen on the high seas by the British Navy, Great Britain’s interference with our trade and other trade issues, and the British incitement of the Native Americans to hostilities against the Americans along the western and southeast American frontiers. Another, often overlooked cause of this war was it provided America a timely excuse to eliminate American Indian tribes on their frontiers so that further westward expansion could occur. This was especially true in the case of the Creek Nation in Alabama so that expansion of the American colonies/states could move westward into the Mississippi Territories in the wake of the elimination of the French influence there with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, and the Spanish influence, with the Pinckney Treaty of 1796. Now the British and the Creek Nation were the only ones standing in the way of America’s destiny of moving the country westward into the Mississippi Territories.
The Creek War of 1813-1814The Creek War of 1813-1814 Moderator’s Guide “In classrooms where teachers use deliberation, students learn to think critically, work through differences, and interact with people who may or may not share their point of view. Teaching through deliberation provides students with the skills and abilities to work with others as citizens to claim a better future for their communities.” - Stacie Molnar-Main, Deliberation in the Classroom This issue guide is designed for classroom deliberation on a period of Alabama history that deserves more of our attention: the Creek Indian Civil War of 1813-14. Deliberation is a form of discussion where participants weigh the pros and cons of different approaches to solving a complex problem. Participants work through various tradeoffs or consequences of actions with respect and passion, and, over time, they develop skills required for living in a democratic society: critical thinking, communication, judgment, and empathy. This classroom deliberation invites students to consider the difficult choices that faced Creek Indians in 1813. About the Project This issue guide was developed in collaboration with the Charles F. Kettering Foundation as part of a research project on integrating historical and civic education. Partners include the Caroline Marshall Draughon Center for the Arts & Humanities in the College of Liberal Arts at Auburn University; Clarke County Historical Museum; and the David Mathews Center for Civic Life. Special thanks to colleagues at the Alabama Department of Archives and History and the Alabama Bicentennial Commission, as well as Dr. Kathryn Holland Braund, History Department, Auburn University. This issue guide is dedicated to Robert Thrower (1961-2017), Tribal Historic Preservation Officer, Poarch Creek Indians.
The Battle of Horseshoe Bend: Collision of CulturesNational Park Service Teaching with Historic Places U.S. Department of the Interior The Battle of Horseshoe Bend: Collision of Cultures The Battle of Horseshoe Bend: Collision of Cultures (Horseshoe Bend National Military Park) Today the Tallapoosa River quietly winds its way through east-central Alabama, its banks edged by the remnants of the forest that once covered the Southeast. About halfway down its 270-mile run to the southwest, the river curls back on itself to form a peninsula. The land defined by this "horseshoe bend" covers about 100 wooded acres; a finger of high ground points down its center, and an island stands sentinel on its west side. This tranquil setting belies the violence that cut through Horseshoe Bend on March 27, 1814. On the peninsula stood 1,000 American Indian warriors, members of the tribe European Americans knew as the Creek. These men, along with 350 women and children, had arrived over the previous six months in search of refuge. Many had been part of a series of costly battles during the past year, all fought in an attempt to regain the autonomy the Indians had held before the arrival of European Americans. Surrounding the Creek were forces led by future President Andrew Jackson, then a major general of the Tennessee Militia. The core of his force was 2,600 European American soldiers, most of whom hoped that a victory would open native land to European American settlement. Yet this fight was not simply European American versus American Indian: on Jackson's side were 600 "friendly" Indians, including 100 Creek.
Creek Indian War of 1813-1814National Park Service Ocmulgee Mounds U.S. Department of Interior Ocmulgee Mounds NHP The Creek Indian War of 1813-1814 RIFT OF In the fall of 1811, the great Shawnee chief Tecumseh came to incite the Creeks of THE CREEK Georgia against the whites. He gave a speech at the town of Tuckabatchee challenging CONFEDERACY the Creeks to regain their former glory. In Florida, the Spanish encouraged the discord between Indians and settlers, hoping to gain politically and economically. A rift opened in the Creek Confederacy between those who wanted to remain loyal to the settlers and those who wanted to expel the whites. The latter group, called the Red Sticks because of the red-painted clubs they carried, needed more arms to accomplish their goals and in 1813 a contingent journeyed to Pensacola, Florida to purchase guns and gunpowder from the Spanish. On their return journey, they were attacked by militia and settlers who wanted to prevent the Red Sticks from acquiring ammunion. This skirmish, called the Burnt Corn incident because of the nearby Burnt Corn Creek, escalated the conflict to a point of no return for the Red Sticks. CREEK Two weeks after the Burnt Corn incident, Fort Sinquefield protected a group of RETALIATION the Red Sticks gathered on the banks of settlers, including refugees from the recent the Alabama River to discuss plans for trouble, friendly Creeks and 15 armed retaliation. It was decided to divide the men. Unaware of the approaching danger, Creeks into two sections and attack Fort the inhabitants, along with a contingent Mims and Fort Sinquefield.
Andrew Jackson and Indian RemovalMr. O’Brien U.S. History I PreAP Andrew Jackson and Indian Removal For this assignment you will use excerpts from A Peoples History of the United States by Howard Zinn. I have adapted the appropriate writings from Chapters 7 of Zinn’s book (As Long as Grass Grows or Water Runs. Please refer to the reading to answer the questions. You will be completing this assignment outside of class. The assignment is worth 135 points. Please double-space your typed responses. The due date is ______. Please feel free to email me with any questions at [email protected], or use edmodo.com. * Please type the questions, and follow your answer with a ____/5, ____/10, ____/15, etc. 1. How was the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (of the War of 1812) won? How did Jackson treat the Creeks shortly after the War of 1812? (5 pts) 2. Why would demanding that Indians own private property make them more vulnerable to losing their land than if they continued to use the land in common? (10 pts) 3. From 1814 to 1824, whites took over (via treaties) large parts of the southern states from the Indians. How did Jackson encourage this process? Why would the Indians sign these treaties? (5 pts) 4. For what reasons did Jackson give to explain his invasion of Spanish-owned Florida? (5 pts) 5. Why did the Indians resist leaving their land? (5 pts) 6. How did the federal system (of national and state governments) serve to allow the national government to avoid blame? (10 pts) 7.
Information to UsersINFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter free, vdiile others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, b%inning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Hgher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI A BeQ & Howell Infimnation Compai^ 300 NoithZeeb Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE FROM ONE TO MANY, FROM MANY TO ONE: SPEECH COMMUNITIES IN THE MUSKOGEE STOMPDANCE POPULATION A Dissertation SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By PAMELA JOAN INNES Norman, Oklahoma 1997 mil Number: 9724423 Copyright 1997 by Izmes, Pamela Joan All rights reserved.
The Removal of the Creek Indians from the Southeast, 1825-1838THE REMOVAL OF THE CREEK INDIANS FROM THE SOUTHEAST, 1825-1838 Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this dissertation is my own or was done in collaboration with my advisory committee. This dissertation does not include proprietary or classified information. ____________________________ Christopher D. Haveman Certificate of Approval: ____________________________ ____________________________ Kenneth W. Noe Kathryn E. Holland Braund, Chair Professor Professor History History ____________________________ ____________________________ David C. Carter John Saye Professor Professor History Education ____________________________ George T. Flowers Dean Graduate School THE REMOVAL OF THE CREEK INDIANS FROM THE SOUTHEAST, 1825-1838 Christopher D. Haveman A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, Alabama August 10, 2009 THE REMOVAL OF THE CREEK INDIANS FROM THE SOUTHEAST, 1825-1838 Christopher D. Haveman Permission is granted to Auburn University to make copies of this dissertation at its discretion, upon request of individuals or institutions and at their expense. The author reserves all publication rights. ________________________________ Signature of Author ________________________________ Date of Graduation iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT THE REMOVAL OF THE CREEK INDIANS FROM THE SOUTHEAST, 1825-1838 Christopher D. Haveman Doctor of Philosophy, August 10, 2009 (M.A. Auburn University, 2006) (M.A. Marquette University, 2001) (B.A. Western Washington University, 1998) 407 Typed Pages Directed by Kathryn E. Holland Braund This dissertation examines the removal of approximately twenty-three thousand Creek Indians from Alabama and Georgia to present-day Oklahoma between 1825 and 1838. At its height, the Creek Nation encompassed most of the present-day states of Alabama, Georgia, and Florida.
Indian Removal ActSectionSection66 SSectionection PPreviewreview As you read, look for: Native Americans • Sequoyah and his syllabary, • the relationship among the in Georgia settlers, the Cherokee, and the Creek, Native Americans had hunted in Georgia’s forests and fished its streams and • the events leading up to the rivers for ten thousand years. The fifty-five years from 1783 to 1838 were removal of the Cherokee and one of the darkest periods in the history of these Native Americans. During the Creek from Georgia, and this period, they were forced out of their traditional lands and moved to • vocabulary terms: syllabary, unknown territories. Oconee War, Treaty of New York, Red Sticks, White Sticks, Treaty The Cherokee of Indian Springs, litigation, In 1800, most Native Americans in Georgia still made their living in the emigrate, and Trail of Tears. traditional ways—by hunting or farming. Some, however, were quick to learn from white settlers. The Cherokee, in particular, were considered to be the most advanced of the tribes. A few Cherokee, like Chief James Vann, lived in large houses. Located on the outskirts of Chatsworth, Vann’s classic two- Below and opposite page story brick mansion has been called the “Showcase of the Cherokee Nation.” above: The Chief Vann In addition to the main house, the homestead contained forty-two cabins, House, exterior and interior, six barns, five smokehouses, a gristmill, a blacksmith, a foundry, a trading with a typical 18th century post, and a still. Vann believed that Christianity meant progress for the Cherokee log house on left. 192 Chapter 6: An Age of Expansion Cherokee, and he brought in Moravian missionaries to teach his children and his people.
Civilizing” Influence of SlaveryThe “Civilizing” Influence of Slavery The Introduction of African-American Slavery into the Creek Nation and the Spread of American Slave Society into the Southern Frontier Jacob Goldenberg Advisor: Professor Alan Brinkley Second Reader: Professor Barbara J. Fields April 2013 Columbia University in the City of New York Department of History Abstract Prior to its founding as an English colony, modern-day Georgia was populated largely by members of what the English termed to be the Creek Confederacy, a loosely unified conglomeration of various tribes and language groups. Over the course of a century, from Georgia’s founding in 1733 until the removal of the Creeks to lands west of the Mississippi in the early 1830s, Creek lands were slowly adopted into southern slave society. This thesis will focus on the evolving attitudes of American slave-owners towards the presence of slavery among the Creeks of Georgia, and how slavery’s growth affected Creek society and sovereignty east of the Mississippi. During the colonial period, the Creek country was an uncontrolled cultural breeding ground on which a new and unique society with slaves began to emerge. It was during this period that some Creeks themselves first came to own slaves and European slave-owners first came to live among the Creeks. Despite the incongruence of native Creek social life with this system of slavery based on racial difference, African slavery became a recognizable part of life in the Creek country, for Creeks and the new foreigners among them. The years following the Revolutionary War saw slave-owners shift gears as they looked towards colonizing more Creek lands and expanding their slave society into the interior.